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The Pallava dynasty existed from 275 to 897, ruling a significant portion of , also known as . The Pallavas played a crucial role in shaping in particular southern Indian history and heritage.

(2021). 9781119399919 .
The dynasty rose to prominence after the downfall of the , whom they had formerly served as .The journal of the Numismatic Society of India, Volume 51, p.109Alī Jāvīd and Tabassum Javeed. (2008). World heritage monuments and related edifices in India, p.107 [1]

The Pallavas became a major power during the reign of (600–630) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668), and dominated the southern and the northern parts of the Tamil region for about 600 years, until the end of the 9th century. Throughout their reign, they remained in constant conflict with both the of to the north, and the Tamil kingdoms of and to their south. The Pallavas were finally defeated by the ruler in the 9th century.

The Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of Hindu Vaishnava temple architecture, the finest example being the , a UNESCO World Heritage Site in . served as the capital of the Pallava kingdom. The dynasty left behind magnificent sculptures and temples, and are recognized to have established the foundations of medieval southern Indian architecture, which some scholars believe the ancient Hindu treatise inspired. They developed the , from which ultimately took form. This script eventually gave rise to several other Southeast Asian scripts such . The Chinese traveller visited during Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule.

Etymology
The word Pallava means a creeper or branch in Sanskrit. Pallava also means arrow or spruce in Tamil.

Origins
The origins of the Pallavas have been debated by scholars. The available historical materials include three copper-plate grants of Sivaskandavarman in the first quarter of the 4th century, all issued from but found in various parts of , and another inscription of half century earlier in the (Pallava Nadu) area of the western .: "This view, which till recently was no more than an intelligent guess, seems to gain support from a Prakrit Brahmi inscription recently discovered in the Palnad taluk of the Guntur district. In spite of its mutilated condition, it clearly mentions Sihavamma of the Palava dynasty and Bharadaya gotta... This is the earliest Pallava inscription so far known.": "The Manchikallu Prakrt inscription mentions a Simhavamma or Simhavarman of the Pallava family and the Bharadvaja gotra and registers gifts made by him after performing Santi and Svastyayana for his victory and increase of strength." All the early documents are in , and scholars find similarities in paleography and language with the and the . Their early coins are said to be similar to those of Satavahanas. Two main theories regarding the origins of the Pallavas have emerged based on available historical data. The first theory suggests that the Pallavas were initially subordinate to the Satavahanas, a ruling dynasty in the Andhradesa region (north of the Penna River in modern-day : "The Andhradesa of our period was limited in the north by Kalinga and in the east by the sea; in the south it did not extend far beyond the northern part of the Nellore district (the Pallava Karmarashtra), in the west it extended far into the interior."). According to this theory, the Pallavas later expanded their influence southward, eventually establishing their power in Kanchi (modern-day ). The second theory proposes that the Pallavas originated in Kanchi itself, where they initially rose to prominence. From there, they expanded their dominion northward, reaching as far as the Krishna River. Another theory posits that the Pallavas were descendants of Chola Prince and had their roots in , the region around Kanchi. These theories provide different perspectives on the Pallavas' early history and territorial expansion, but the exact origins of the Pallava dynasty continue to be a subject of debate among historians.

The proponents of the Andhra origin theory include S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar and K. A. Nilakanta Sastri. They believe that Pallavas were originally feudatories of the Satavahanas in the south-eastern part of their empire who became independent when the Satavahana power declined.: "There is much in favour of the thesis that the Pallavas rose into prominence in the service of the Satavahanas in the south-eastern division of their empire, and attained independence when that power declined." They are seen to be "strangers to the Tamil country", unrelated to the ancient lines of Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas. Since Simhavarman's grant bears no regal titles, they believe that he might have been a subsidiary to the who were in power in Andhradesa at that time. In the following half-century, the Pallavas became independent and expanded up to Kanchi.: "S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar regards the Pallavas as the feudatories of the Satavahanas—officers and governors of the south-eastern part of their empire, equates the term Pallava with the terms Tondaiyar and Tondaman (people and rulers of Tonda-mandalam), and says that, after the fall of the Satavahana Empire, those feudatories 'founded the new dynasty of the Pallavas, as distinct from the older chieftains, the Tondamans of the region.'"

S. Krishnaswami Aiyengar also speculates that the Pallavas were natives of and the name Pallava is identical with the word Tondaiyar. Prince is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Pallava dynasty. Ilandiraiyan is referred to in the literature of the such as the . In the Sangam epic , he is depicted as the son of king Killi and the Naga princess Pilivalai, the daughter of king Valaivanan of .

Another theory is propounded by historians R. Sathianathaier and D. C. Sircar, with endorsements by , Dietmar Rothermund and .: "...the rather well argued and plausible stand that the Palavas were indigenous to the central Tamil plain, Tondaimandalam..." Sircar points out that the family legends of the Pallavas speak of an ancestor descending from , the legendary warrior of Mahabharata, and his union with a Naga princess. According to , the Aruvanadu region between the northern and southern Penner rivers ( and : "There can hardly be any doubt that this Aruvanadu between the Northern and Southern Pennars is the Arouarnoi of Ptolemy's Geography. This Arouarnoi is practically the same as the Kanci-mandala, i.e. the district round Kanci.": "... River South Pennar where began the division known as Aruvānādu, which extended northwards along the coast almost as far as the Northern Pennar.") was ruled by a king Basaronaga around 140 CE. By marrying into this Naga family, the Pallavas would have acquired control of the region near Kanchi. While Sircar allows that Pallavas might have been provincial rulers under the later Satavahanas with a partial northern lineage, Sathianathaier sees them as natives of (the core region of Aruvanadu). He argues that they could well have adopted northern Indian practices under the Mauryan 's rule. He relates the name "Pallava" to , whose heritage is borne by names such as "Pulinadu" and "Puliyurkottam" in the region.

According to the Pallavas were Kurumbas and their modern representatives. This is supported by Marathi historian R. C. Dhere who stated that Pallavas were originally pastoralists that belonged to Kuruba lineages.

(2025). 9780199777648, Oxford University Press. .
The territory of Pallavas was bordered by the along present Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh. Out of the coins found here, the class of gold and silver coins belonging to the 2nd-7th century CE period contain the Pallava emblem, the maned lion, together with or inscription which showed that the Pallavas used Kannada too in their administration along with Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil.

Overlaid on these theories is another hypothesis of Sathianathaier which claims that "Pallava" is a derivative of (the Sanskrit term for Parthians). According to him, partial support for the theory can be derived from a crown shaped like an elephant's scalp depicted on some sculptures, which seems to resemble the crown of Demetrius I.

Rivalries
With Cholas
The Pallavas captured Kanchi from the as recorded in the Velurpalaiyam Plates, around the reign of the fifth king of the Pallava line Kumaravishnu I. Thereafter Kanchi figures in inscriptions as the capital of the Pallavas. The Cholas drove the Pallavas away from Kanchi in the mid-4th century, in the reign of , the tenth king of the Pallava line. The Pallavas re-captured Kanchi from the in the mid-6th century, possibly in the reign of , the fourteenth king of the Pallava line, whom the Kasakudi plates state as "the lion of the earth". Thereafter the Pallavas held on to until the 9th century, until the reign of their last king, .Rev. H Heras, SJ (1931) Pallava Genealogy: An attempt to unify the Pallava Pedigrees of the Inscriptions, Indian Historical Research Institute

With Kadambas
The Pallavas were in conflict with major kingdoms at various periods of time. A contest for political supremacy existed between the early Pallavas and the . Numerous Kadamba inscriptions provide details of Pallava-Kadamba hostilities.KR Subramanian. (1989). Buddhist remains in Āndhra and the history of Āndhra between 224 & 610 A.D, p.106-109

With Kalabhras
During the reign of Vishnugopavarman II (approx. 500–525), political convulsion engulfed the Pallavas due to the invasion of the Tamil country. Towards the close of the 6th century, the Pallava Simhavishnu stuck a blow against the Kalabhras. The Pandyas followed suit. Thereafter the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas in the north with as their capital, and Pandyas in the south with as their capital.

Birudas
The royal custom of using a series of descriptive honorific titles, Birudas, was particularly prevalent among the Pallavas. The Birudas of Mahendravarman I are in Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu. The Telugu Birudas show Mahendravarman's involvement with the Andhra region continued to be strong at the time he was creating his cave-temples in the Tamil region. The suffix "Malla" was used by the Pallava rulers.Marilyn Hirsh (1987) Mahendravarman I Pallava: Artist and Patron of Māmallapuram, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 48, Number 1/2 (1987), pp. 109-130 Mahendravarman I used the Biruda, Shatrumalla, "a warrior who overthrows his enemies", and his grandson Paramesvara I was called Ekamalla "the sole warrior or wrestler". Pallava kings, presumably exalted ones, were known by the title Mahamalla ("great wrestler").

Languages used
Pallava inscriptions have been found in , and .

Tamil was main language used by the Pallavas in their inscriptions although a few records continued to be in Sanskrit. At the time of the time of Paramesvaravarman I, the practice came into vogue of inscribing a part of the record in Sanskrit and the rest in Tamil. Almost all the copper plate records, viz., Kasakudi, Tandantottam, Pattattalmangalm, Udayendiram and Velurpalaiyam are composed both in Sanskrit and Tamil.

Many Pallava royal inscriptions were in Sanskrit or Prakrit, considered the official languages. Similarly, inscriptions found in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka State are in Sanskrit and Prakrit.Rajan K. (Jan-Feb 2008). Situating the Beginning of Early Historic Times in Tamil Nadu: Some Issues and Reflections, Social Scientist, Vol. 36, Number 1/2, pp. 40-78 Sanskrit was widely used by and Narasimhavarman II in literature. The phenomenon of using Prakrit as official languages in which rulers left their inscriptions and epigraphies continued till the 6th century. It would have been in the interest of the ruling elite to protect their privileges by perpetuating their hegemony of Prakrit in order to exclude the common people from sharing power (Mahadevan 1995a: 173–188). The Pallavas in their Tamil country used Tamil and Sanskrit in their inscriptions.Heras, p 38

Writing system
Under the Pallava dynasty, a unique form of , a descendant of Pallava script which is a type of , was used. Around the 6th century, it was exported eastwards and influenced the genesis of almost all Southeast Asian scripts.

Religion
Pallavas were followers of Hinduism and made gifts of land to gods and Brahmins. In line with the prevalent customs, some of the rulers performed the and other Vedic sacrifices. They were, however, tolerant of other faiths. The Chinese monk who visited during the reign of Narasimhavarman I reported that there were 100 Buddhist monasteries, and 80 Hindu temples in Kanchipuram.Kulke and Rothermund, pp121–122 The semi-legendary founder of , , is in an Indian tradition regarded to be the third son of a Pallava king.

Pallava architecture
built by Narasimhavarman II]] Pallavas were instrumental in the transition from rock-cut architecture to stone temples. The earliest examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610 to 690 and structural temples between 690 and 900. A number of rock-cut cave temples bear the inscription of the Pallava king, Mahendravarman I and his successors.Nilakanta Sastri, pp412–413

Among the accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples at . There are excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines known as Rathas in Mahabalipuram. Early temples were mostly dedicated to . The Kailasanatha temple in and the built by Narasimhavarman II, rock cut temple in by Mahendravarman are fine examples of the Pallava style temples.Nilakanta Sastri, p139 The temple of in , is another. The famous Tondeswaram temple of and the ancient Koneswaram temple of were patronised and structurally developed by the Pallavas in the 7th century. Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, Dist. Kanchipuram , Archaeological Survey of India (2014)

Pallava society
The Pallava period beginning with Simhavishnu (575 CE900 CE) was a transitional stage in southern Indian society with monument building, foundation of devotional (bhakti) sects of and , the flowering of rural Brahmanical institutions of Sanskrit learning, and the establishment of chakravartin model of kingship over a territory of diverse people; which ended the pre-Pallavan era of territorially segmented people, each with their culture, under a tribal chieftain. While a system of ranked relationship among groups existed in the , the Pallava period extolled ranked relationships based on ritual purity as enjoined by the shastras. Burton distinguishes between the chakravatin model and the kshatriya model, and likens kshatriyas to locally based warriors with ritual status sufficiently high enough to share with Brahmins; and states that in south India the kshatriya model did not emerge. As per Burton, south India was aware of the Indo-Aryan varna organised society in which decisive secular authority was vested in the kshatriyas; but apart from the Pallava, Chola and Vijayanagar line of warriors which claimed chakravartin status, only few locality warrior families achieved the prestigious kin-linked organisation of northern warrior groups.

Chronology
Sastri chronology
The earliest documentation on the Pallavas is the three copper-plate grants, now referred to as the Mayidavolu (from village in of ), Hirehadagali (from Hire Hadagali of ) and the British Museum plates (Durga Prasad, 1988) belonging to Skandavarman I and written in .Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p.91 Skandavarman appears to have been the first great ruler of the early Pallavas, though there are references to other early Pallavas who were probably predecessors of Skandavarman.Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p.91–92 Skandavarman extended his dominions from the in the north to the in the south and to the district in the West. He performed the Aswamedha and other Vedic sacrifices and bore the title of "Supreme King of Kings devoted to dharma".

The Hirahadagali copper plate (Bellary District) record in Prakrit is dated in the eighth year of Sivaskanda Varman to 283 CE and confirms the gift made by his father who is described merely as "Bappa-deva" (revered father) or Boppa. It will thus be clear that this dynasty of the Prakrit charters beginning with "Bappa-deva" were the historical founders of the Pallava dominion in southern India.

The Hirahadagalli Plates were found in Hirehadagali, and is one of the earliest copper plates in and belongs to the reign of early Pallava ruler Shivaskanda Varma. Pallava King Sivaskandavarman of Kanchi of the early Pallavas ruled from 275 to 300 CE, and issued the charter in 283 CE in the eighth year of his reign.

As per the Hirahadagalli Plates of 283 CE, Pallava King Sivaskandavarman granted an immunity viz the garden of Chillarekakodumka, which was formerly given by Lord Bappa to the Brahmins, freeholders of Chillarekakodumka and inhabitants of Apitti. Chillarekakodumka has been identified by some as ancient village Chillarige in Bellary, Karnataka.

In the reign of , who ascended the throne in 436, the territories lost to the in the north up to the mouth of the Krishna were recovered. The early Pallava history from this period onwards is furnished by a dozen or so copper-plate grants in . They are all dated in the regnal years of the kings.Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p.92

The following chronology was composed from these charters by in his :

Early Pallavas
  • (275–300)
  • Shivskandvarman (unknown)
  • Vijayskandavarman (unknown)
  • Skandavarman (unknown)
  • (350–355)
  • Kumaravishnu I (350–370)
  • Skandavarman II (370–385)
  • Viravarman (385–400)
  • Skandavarman III (400–436)
  • (436–460)
  • Skandavarman IV (460–480)
  • Nandivarman I (480–510)
  • Kumaravishnu II (510–530)
  • Buddhavarman (530–540)
  • Kumaravishnu III (540–550)
  • (550–560)

Later Pallavas
The incursion of the and the confusion in the Tamil country was broken by the and the Pallava .Kulke and Rothermund, p.120 extended the Pallava Kingdom and was one of the greatest sovereigns. Some of the most ornate monuments and temples in southern India, carved out of solid rock, were introduced under his rule. He also wrote the play Mattavilasa Prahasana.

The Pallava kingdom began to gain both in territory and influence and were a regional power by the end of the 6th century, defeating kings of and mainland Tamilakkam.Kulke and Rothermund, p111 Narasimhavarman I and Paramesvaravarman I stand out for their achievements in both military and architectural spheres. Narasimhavarman II built the .

  • (575–600)
  • (600–630)
  • Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) (630–668)
  • Mahendravarman II (668–672)
  • Paramesvaravarman I (670–695)
  • Narasimhavarman II (Raja Simha) (695–722)
  • Paramesvaravarman II (705–710)

Later Pallavas of the Kadava Line
The kings that came after Paramesvaravarman II belonged to the collateral line of Pallavas and were descendants of Bhimavarman, the brother of Simhavishnu. They called themselves as , Kadavesa and Kaduvetti. Hiranyavarman, the father of Nandivarman Pallavamalla is said to have belonged to the Kadavakula in epigraphs. Nandivarman II himself is described as "one who was born to raise the prestige of the Kadava family".

Aiyangar chronology
According to the available inscriptions of the Pallavas, historian S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar proposes the Pallavas could be divided into four separate families or dynasties; some of whose connections are known and some unknown.S.Krishnaswami Aiyangar. Some Contributions Of South India To Indian Culture. Early History of the Pallavas Aiyangar states
We have a certain number of charters in Prakrit of which three are important ones. Then follows a dynasty which issued their charters in Sanskrit; following this came the family of the great Pallavas beginning with Simha Vishnu; this was followed by a dynasty of the usurper Nandi Varman, another great Pallava. We are overlooking for the present the dynasty of the Ganga-Pallavas postulated by the Epigraphists. The earliest of these Pallava charters is the one known as the Mayidavolu 1 (Guntur district) copper-plates.

Based on a combination of dynastic plates and grants from the period, Aiyangar proposed their rule thus:

Early Pallavas
  • Bappadevan, chola prince (250–275)married a Naga of Mavilanga (Kanchi) – The Great Founder of a Pallava lineage
  • Shivaskandavarman I (275–300)
  • Simhavarman (300–320)
  • Bhuddavarman (320–335)
  • Bhuddyankuran (335–340)

Middle Pallavas
  • Visnugopa (340–355) ( Yuvamaharaja Vishnugopa)
  • Kumaravisnu I (355–370)
  • Skanda Varman II (370–385)
  • Vira Varman (385–400)
  • Skanda Varman III (400–435)
  • Simha Varman II (435–460)
  • Skanda Varman IV (460–480)
  • Nandi Varman I (480–500)
  • Kumaravisnu II ( 500–510)
  • Buddha Varman ( 510–520)
  • Kumaravisnu III ( 520–530)
  • Simha Varman III ( 530–537)

Later Pallavas
  • (537–570)
  • (571–630)
  • Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) (630–668)
  • Mahendravarman II (668–672)
  • Paramesvaravarman I (672–700)
  • Narasimhavarman II (Raja Simha) (700–727)
  • Paramesvaravarman II (705–710)

Later Pallavas of the Kadava Line

Genealogy of Māmallapuram Praśasti
The genealogy of Pallavas mentioned in the Māmallapuram Praśasti is as follows:
  • Vishnu
  • Brahma
  • Unknown / undecipherable
  • Unknown / undecipherable
  • Bharadvaja
  • Drona
  • Ashvatthaman
  • Pallava
  • Unknown / undecipherable
  • Unknown / undecipherable
  • Simhavarman I ( 275)
  • Unknown / undecipherable
  • Unknown / undecipherable
  • Simhavarman IV (436– 460)
  • Unknown / undecipherable
  • Unknown / undecipherable
  • Skandashishya
  • Unknown / undecipherable
  • Unknown / undecipherable
  • Simhavisnu ( 550–585)
  • Mahendravarman I ( 571–630)
  • Maha-malla Narasimhavarman I (630–668)
  • Unknown / undecipherable
  • Paramesvaravarman I (669–690)
  • Rajasimha Narasimhavaram II (690–728)
  • Unknown / undecipherable
  • Pallavamalla Nandivarman II (731–796)
  • Unknown / undecipherable
  • Nandivarman III (846–869)

Relation with the Cholas
According to historian S. Krishnaswami Aiyengar, the Pallavas were natives of and the name Pallava is identical with the word Tondaiyar. Prince is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Pallava dynasty. Ilandiraiyan is referred to in the literature of the such as the . In the Sangam epic , he is depicted as the son of king Killi and the Naga princess Pilivalai, the daughter of king Valaivanan of . When the boy grew up the princess wanted to send her son to the Chola kingdom. So she entrusted the prince to a merchant who dealt in woolen blankets called Kambala Chetty when his ship stopped in the island of Manipallavam. During the voyage to the Chola kingdom, the ship was wrecked due to rough weather and the boy was lost. He was later found washed ashore with a Tondai twig (creeper) around his leg. So he came to be called Tondaiman Ilam Tiraiyan meaning the young one of the seas or waves. When he grew up the northern part of the Chola kingdom was entrusted to him and the area he governed came to be called after him.He was a poet himself and four of his songs are extant even today. He ruled from and was known as "Tondaman."

Other relationships
Pallava royal lineages were influential in the old kingdom of Kedah of the Malay Peninsula under Rudravarman I, Champa under and the Kingdom of the in Cambodia. Some historians have claimed the present Palli caste are descendants of the Pallavas who ruled the Andhra and Tamil countries between the 6th and 9th centuries. Tamil scholar M. Srinivasa Iyengar claimed the Pallis were one of the communities who served often in Pallava armies.

The similarity of the name ending "-varman" of Pallava rulers with that of during the Hindu/Buddhist era of such as king of the , king of the kingdom, king of the Malayapura kingdom, etc. has been commented upon by historians since discovery. There have been possible high relations and connections of the Hindu kingdoms of Indonesia with the Pallava dynasty and other Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms of India back then.

List of feudatories
  • Salankayana dynasty

See also

Notes
External links
: , , , , , , , ,
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